Notes

1. . Joseph Rychlak, Discovering Free Will and Personal Responsibility (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979). Page and chapter references are cited in the text.
2. . Robert I. Solso, “Artificial Intelligence” in Cognitive Psychology (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979); Margaret Boden, Artificial Intelligence and Natural Man (New York: Basic Books, 1977); Neill Graham, Artificial Intelligence: Making Machines “Think” (Blur Ridge Summit, Penn.: TAB Books, 1979).
3. . These behaviors are described by Irenaus Eibl–Eibesfeldt, “Orientation in Space” in Ethology, the Biology of Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1975), and by Konrad Z. Lorenz, Behind the Mirror (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977). Lewis Thomas has offered an analogous speculation in his essay “On Thinking about Thinking” in The Medusa and the Snail; More Notes of a Biology Watcher (New York: Viking, 1979), pp. 125–28. In addition to the simple–organism metaphor, Thomas borrows terms from chemistry (“Brownian movement”) and astrophysics (“docking,”“orbits”) in trying to describe the characteristics of the elements of thought. Also see Robert B. Glassman, “Selection Processes in Living Systems: Role in Cognitive Construction and Recovery from Brain Damage,” Behavioral Science 19 (1974): 149–203 and “The Logic of the Lesion Experiment and its Role in the Neural Sciences” in Recovery from Brain Damage, Research and Theory, ed. S. Finger (New York: Plenum, 1978), pp. 9–13.
4. . It is interesting that, in growing or regenerating, nerve cells often appear as if they are seeking targets. See, e.g., Lloyd Guth, “Axonal Regeneration and Functional Plasticity in the Central Nervous System,” Experimental Neurology 45 (1974): 606–54; K. K. Hunt and Marcus Jacobson, “Neuronal Specificity Revisited,” Current Topics in Developmental Biology 8 (1974): 203–59; C. M. Pomerat, Dynamic Aspects of the Neuron in Tissue Culture (Gaithersburg, Md.: Tissue Culture Association Film Library). Although something like final causation thus appears to operate even on a cellular level, the relationships between these microscopic processes and more holistic psychological functions is for the most part unknown.
5. . Peter M. Milner, Physiological Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970), pp. 57–101, 297–423.
6. . James Olds, Drives and Reinforcements: Behavioral Studies of Hypothalamic Function (New York: Raven Press, 1977); Robert G. Heath, “Pleasure and Brain Activity in Man,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 154 (1972): 3–18; Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (New York: Wiley, 1973); A. R. Luria. The Working Brain (New York: Basic Books, 1973).
7. . Ernest Gardner, Fundamentals of Neurology, 6th ed. (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1975): Theodore 11. Bullock, Richard Orkand, and Alan Grinnell, Introduction to Nervous Systems (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1977); Mary A. B. Brazier and Hellmuth Petsche, eds., Architectonics of the Cerebral Cortex, International Brain Research Organization Monograph Series, vol. 3 (New York: Raven Press, 1978).
8. . Richard E. Nisbett and Timothy DeCamp Wilson, “Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes,” Psychological Review 84 (1977): 231–59.
9. . Arnold L. Towe, “Somatosensory Cortex: Descending Influences on Ascending Systems.” in Handbook of Sensory Physiology, Somotosensory System, ed. A. Iggo (New York: Springer–Verlag, 1973), 2:701–18; George Gordon, ed., Active Touch (New York: Pergamon Press. 1978).
10. . Konrad Z. Lorenz, “The Bond,” in On Aggression (New York: Bantam, 1966). pp. 159–211. In general the work of European ethologists, who study animals in natural habitats. provides rigorous descriptions of animal behavior that are richer and in many ways mow easily comparable to human behaviors, than does the work of behaviorists, in which laboratory studies are emphasized more. Rychlak uses an impoverished description of “straw animals” when he makes reference to Skinner's ideas (see esp. p. 88). See also Eibl–Eibealeldt (n. 3 above).
11. . Skinner's is the most antimentalistic behaviorism. Consideration of choice making in rats (“vicarious trial and error”) has been a prominent part of the work of other behaviorists. See Ernest R. Hilgard and Gordon H. Bower, Theories of learning, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice–Hall, 1975). pp. 143–44. When cats are learning to choose one of two different discriminative responses depending on which of two stimuli has been given, they frequently stop after making one response only part way, and then perform the other response. Cats in which the prefrontal cortex was experimentally damaged after thorough pretraining were recently observed to display a deficit in sustaining an appropriate posture, preparatory to performing a discriminative response, during a delay of five seconds following the stimulus presentation. After about three seconds of postural orientation in the direction of the correct response they switched to the incorrect response. This, an exaggerated tendency to “think dialectically” on the part of prefrontally damaged animals caused them to make more errors in the delayed discriminative response task than if they had responded at random! Robert B. Glassman. Doris E. Cook, and Harriet N. Glassman, “Prefrontal Lesions and Cutaneous Responsiveness of Cats: Learned Discrimination, Delayed Response, Orientation–Localization. and Transfer,” Physiology and Behavior 26 (1981): 107–16.
12. . Lorenz's books for a lay audience contain many delightful examples of “anthropomorphic” behaviors in animals. See especially On Aggression (n. 10 above), King Solomon's Ring (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1952), and Man Meets Dog (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books, 1953). In Behind the Mirror (n. 3 above) he presents a more technical analysis of “The Roots of Conceptual Thought,” pp. 113–66.
13. . This principle of “fundamental surprise” is attributed to Kenneth E. Boulding by Alfred Kihn, The Logic of Social Systems (San Francisco: Jossey–Bass, 1974). p. 439.
14. . Ralph Wendell Burhoe speaks of the “erasable blackboard on which the brain tries out a symbolic model” and tests it against the existing value structure. “Evolving Cybernetic Machinery and Human Values,” Zygon 7 (1972): 188–209. Donald T. Campbell uses the term “vicarious selector” to describe internal characteristics that protect the organism from having to confront environmental selectors that might threaten survival. See “Unjustified Variation and Selective Retention in Scientific Discovery,” in Studies in the Philosophy of Biology, ed. F. J. Ayala and T. Dobzhansky (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), pp. 139–61.
15. . The general possibility of symbiotic relationships between genetic and cultural sources of information has been discussed by Ralph Wendell Burhoe, “The Human Prospect and the 'Lord of History',” Zygon 10 (1975): 299–375; idem, “The Source of Civilization in the Natural Selection of Coadapted Information in Genes and Culture,” Zygon 11 (1976): 263–303. I would argue additionally that whenever a longstanding cultural phenomenon is observed, it is likely itself to be supported in part by a genetically influenced disposition to learn. See Robert B. Glassman, “An Evolutionary Hypothesis about Teaching and Proselytizing Behaviors,” Zygon 15 (1980): 133–54. In the present instance this argument suggests an innate bias toward learning certain religious practices.
16. . This is a variant of Donald T. Campbell's suggestion that preaching emanating from the social system functions to counterbalance a genetically influenced propensity toward selfishness. “On the Conflicts Between Biological and Social Evolution and Between Psychology and Moral Tradition,” American Psychologist 30 (1975): 1103–26, reprinted in Zygon 11 (1976): 167–208.
17. . Karl E. Peters, “Some Further Possibilities of Toward a Scientific Theology,” handout accompanying lecture for the Advanced Seminar in Theology and the Sciences, 30 September 1982, Meadville/Lombard Theological School, Chicago. Peters argued that Ralph Wendell Burhoe's theology emphasizes religious ideas and actions, because it is concerned with function; Burhoe tends to neglect religious experience, which comprises a more passive aspect of religion. I believe that if the relevance of Burhoe's theology to religious experience is developed, experience will be found to have active as well as passive functional implications.
18. . Jeremiah P. Collins and Henry Lesse, “Cocaine–Induced Stereotyped Behavior: Ongoing Responses Determine Drug Effects,” Neuroscience Abstracts 5 (1979): 644; Solomon H. Snyder, Madness and the Brain (New York: McGraw–Hill, 1974); A. R. Luria, “The Frontal Lobes and the Regulation of Mental Activity,” in The Working Brain (New York: Basic Book, 1973); D. Devenport, J. A. Devenport, and F. A. Holloway, “Hippo–campal Superstition: A Case of CA–Mediated Stereotypy,” Neuroscience Abstracts 6 (1980): 420. Also, Sherwood O. Cole, “Brain Mechanisms of Amphetamine–Induced Anorexia, Locomotion, and Stereotypy: A Review,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2 (1978): 89–100; H. J. Markowitsch and M. Pritzel, “Learning and the Prefrontal Cortex of the Cat: Anatomico–Behavioral Interrelations,” Physiological Psychology 4 (1976): 247–61; R. B. Glassman and H. N. Glassman, “Oral Dyskinesia in Brain–Damaged Rats Withdrawn from a Neuroleptic: Implication for Models of Tardive Dyskinesia,” Psychopharmacology 69 (1980): 19–25.
19. . T. H. Bullock, et al. (n. 7 above); Stephen W. Kuffler and John G. Nicholls, From Neuron to Brain: A Cellular Approach to the Function of the Nervous System (Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1976).
20. . Vernon B. Mountcastle, “An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System,” in The Mindful Brain: Cortical Organization and the Group–Selective Theory of Higher Brain Function, ed. Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B. Mountcastle (Cambridge. Mass.: MIT Press, 1978).
21. . W. I. Welker, ed., “Neocortical Mapping Studies,” Brain Behavior and Evolution 13 (1976): 241–343; Ulf Norrsell, “Behavioral Studies of the Somatosensory System,” Physiological Reviews 60 (1980): 327–54; J. Kievit and H. G. J. M. Kuypers, “Organization of the Thalamo–Cortical Connexions to the Frontal Lobe in the Rhesus Monkey,” Experimental Brain Research 29 (1977): 299–322; Malcolm B. Carpenter, “Anatomical Organization of the Corpus Striatum and Related Nuclei,” in The Basal Ganglia, ed. M. D. Yahr (New York: Raven Press, 1976), pp. 1–36.